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continuing insurgent re sistance bemused some: “It seems strange to Americans that the Filipinos—or so many of them—are
     bitterly opposed to our sovereignty. They must know it is likely to be a great improvement over former conditions . . . Nevertheless
     they fight on.” Critics of the administration asked, “Is it not time to confess the whole policy a hideous blunder?” 16
    The Federal Party
    MacArthur’s decision for sterner war coincided with the peak of U.S. troop strength during the entire war. Freed from political
     worries and with the rainy season over, MacArthur began 1901 by committing 70,000 veterans to an offensive. His focus was
     the main island of Luzon. Win there, he argued, and the rest of the islands would fall into place. For the next seven months
     elite task forces conducted lightning assaults on insurgent bases. Conventional forces made larger sweeps through the jungles,
     swamps, and mountains that shielded the insurgents. In the countryside, American soldiers burned crops and buildings owned
     by suspected insurgent sympathizers. In the towns, the Americans made mass arrests, paraded the suspects in front of collaborators
     who identified the insurgents, and incarcerated the betrayed. Using investigative methods developed in La Union by William
     Johnston, the Americans purged the civil administration of insurgent sympathizers and broke up the shadow governments.
    Simultaneously, an important segment of the local population decided to put their lives on the line in support of the American
     cause. They called themselves the Federal Party. With the support of MacArthur and Taft, a prominent group of Manila ilustrados and former revolutionary officials formed the party in December 1900. The party’s basic plank was recognition that the Philippines
     was under U.S. sovereignty and belief that this was only a temporary state of affairs leading to eventual in dependence. Of
     course, their decision had a strong component of self-interest. The found-ers of the Federal Party had concluded that after
     McKinley’s reelection the Americans were in the Philippines for the indefinite future. Prolonged warfare would tear the islands
     apart, which was good neither for the nation nor for themselves. If against all odds the insurgents ultimately triumphed,
     the status of the ilustrados in society was still likely to change for the worse because the underclasses would demand more change. On the other hand,
     if the Americans triumphed, then those who had supported them would have a seat at the table during the national restructuring.
    While the Federal Party may not have been dominated by selfless patriots, its ranks included hundreds of very brave individuals.
     They traveled around the islands to speak out in favor of U.S. policies. They also used their contacts with the insurgency
     to try to convince insurgent leaders to give up. Increasing numbers of guerrillas, including some prominent senior officers,
     heeded the call of the Federal Party and came down from the mountains to surrender. They did all of this at considerable personal
     risk. Aguinaldo reacted to the rise of the Federal Party and the emergence of other collaborators by ordering their capture
     and trial by drumhead court-martial followed by execution. 17 More broadly, anyone who held a position in the American civil administration continued to face punishment ranging from a
     $100 fine to death.
    In spite of increasing use of terror tactics against civilians, the insurgents found their support eroding. Because of the
     change in American strategy and the assistance of the Federal Party, as 1901 progressed the Americans enjoyed growing help
     from the civilian population. Guides became available when before there were none. Town dwellers denounced insurgent tax collectors.
     Rural people led Americans to supply caches. Filipino militia and police accepted the burden of defending themselves against
     revolutionary terror. Then, as if