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Authors: Yu-lan Fung
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a disciple asked him what he would do first if he were to rule a state, whereupon Confucius replied: "The one thing needed first is the rectification of names." (Analects, XIII, 3.) On another occasion one of the dukes of the time asked Confucius the right principle of government, to which he answered: "Let the ruler be ruler, the minister minister, the father father, and the son son." (Analects, XII, II.) In other words, every name contains certain implications which constitute the essence of that class of things to which this name applies. Such things, therefore, should a-gree with this ideal essence. The essence of a ruler is what the ruler ideally ought to be, or what, in Chinese, is called the way of the ruler. If a ruler acts according to this way of the ruler, he is then truly a ruler, in fact as well as in name. There is an agreement between name and actuality. But if he does not, he is no ruler, even though he may popularly be regarded as such. Every name in the social relationships implies certain responsibilities and duties.. Ruler, minister, father, and son are all the names of such social relationships, and the individuals bearing these names must fulfill their responsibilities and duties accordingly. Such is the implication of Confucius theory of the rectification of names.
Human—heartedness and Righteousness
With regard to the virtues of the individual, Confucius emphasized hu-man-heartedness and righteousness, especially the former. Righteousness (yi) means the "oughtness" of a situation. It is a categorical imperative. Every one in society has certain things which he ought to do, and which must be done for their own sake, because they are the morally right things to do. If, however, he does them only because of other non-moral considerations, then even though he does what he ought to do, his action is no longer a righteous one. To use a word often disparaged by Confucius and later ^onfucianists, he is then acting for "profit." Yi (righteousness) and Zi(profil) are in Confucianism diametrically opposed terms. Confucius himself says: The superior man comprehends yi; the small man comprehends li.
(Analects, IV, 16.) Herein lies what the later Confucianists called the distinction between yi and li, a distinction which they considered to be of the utmost importance in moral teaching.
The idea of yi is rather formal, but that of jen (humanheartedness) is much more concrete. The formal essence of the duties of man in sociely is their oughtness, because all these duties are what he ought to do. But the material essence of these duties is "loving others, i.e., jen or humanheart-edness. The father acts according to the way a father should act who loves his son; the son acts according to the way a son should act who loves his fa— 068 CONFUCIUS, THE FIRST TEACHER
ther. Confucius says: Human —heartedness consists in loving others. (Analects, XII, 2.2..) The man who really loves others is one able to perform his duties in society. Hence in the A nalects we see that Confucius sometimes uses the word jen not only to denote a special kind of virtue, but also to denote all the virtues combined, so that the term "man of jen" becomes synonymous with the man of all —round virtue. In such contexts, jen can be translated as "perfect virtue."
Chung and Shu
In the Analects we find the passage: When Chung Kung asked the meaning of jen, the master said: ....
Do not do to others what you do not wish yourself .... " (XII, i.) Again, Confucius is reported in the Analects as saying: "The man of jen is one who, desiring to sustain himself, sustains others, and desiring to develop himself, develops others. To be able from one's own self to draw a parallel for the treatment of others; that may be called the way to practise jen."( VI, 2.8.) Thus the practice of jen consists in consideration for others. Desiring to sustain oneself, one sustains others; desiring to develop oneself, one develops others." In other words: "Do to
Human—heartedness and Righteousness
With regard to the virtues of the individual, Confucius emphasized hu-man-heartedness and righteousness, especially the former. Righteousness (yi) means the "oughtness" of a situation. It is a categorical imperative. Every one in society has certain things which he ought to do, and which must be done for their own sake, because they are the morally right things to do. If, however, he does them only because of other non-moral considerations, then even though he does what he ought to do, his action is no longer a righteous one. To use a word often disparaged by Confucius and later ^onfucianists, he is then acting for "profit." Yi (righteousness) and Zi(profil) are in Confucianism diametrically opposed terms. Confucius himself says: The superior man comprehends yi; the small man comprehends li.
(Analects, IV, 16.) Herein lies what the later Confucianists called the distinction between yi and li, a distinction which they considered to be of the utmost importance in moral teaching.
The idea of yi is rather formal, but that of jen (humanheartedness) is much more concrete. The formal essence of the duties of man in sociely is their oughtness, because all these duties are what he ought to do. But the material essence of these duties is "loving others, i.e., jen or humanheart-edness. The father acts according to the way a father should act who loves his son; the son acts according to the way a son should act who loves his fa— 068 CONFUCIUS, THE FIRST TEACHER
ther. Confucius says: Human —heartedness consists in loving others. (Analects, XII, 2.2..) The man who really loves others is one able to perform his duties in society. Hence in the A nalects we see that Confucius sometimes uses the word jen not only to denote a special kind of virtue, but also to denote all the virtues combined, so that the term "man of jen" becomes synonymous with the man of all —round virtue. In such contexts, jen can be translated as "perfect virtue."
Chung and Shu
In the Analects we find the passage: When Chung Kung asked the meaning of jen, the master said: ....
Do not do to others what you do not wish yourself .... " (XII, i.) Again, Confucius is reported in the Analects as saying: "The man of jen is one who, desiring to sustain himself, sustains others, and desiring to develop himself, develops others. To be able from one's own self to draw a parallel for the treatment of others; that may be called the way to practise jen."( VI, 2.8.) Thus the practice of jen consists in consideration for others. Desiring to sustain oneself, one sustains others; desiring to develop oneself, one develops others." In other words: "Do to
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