Read Online A Short History of Chinese Philosophy by Yu-lan Fung - Free Book Online
Authors: Yu-lan Fung
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The writing of books in a private rather than official capacity was an as yet unheard of practice which developed only after the time of Confucius. He was China's first private teacher, but not its first private writer.
The Six Classics had existed before the time of Confucius, and they constituted the cultural legacy of the past. They had been the basis of education for the aristocrats during the early centuries of feudalism of the Chou dynasty. As feudalism began to disintegrate, however, roughly from the seventh century B.C. onward, the tutors of the aristocrats, or even some of the aristocrats themselves—men who had lost their positions and titles but were well versed in the Classics—began to scatter among the people.
They made their living, as we have seen in the last chapter, by teaching the Classics or by acting as skilled "assistants, well versed in the rituals, on the occasion of
064
CONKUC1US, THE FIRST TEACHER
funeral, sacrifice, wedding, and other ceremonies. This class of men was known as the ju or literati.
Confucius as an Educator
Confucius, however, was more than aju in the common sense of the word. It is true that in the Analects we find him, from one point of view, being portrayed merely as an educator. He wanted his disciples to be "rounded men who would be useful to state and society, and therefore he taught them various branches of knowledge based upon the different classics. His primary function as a teacher, he felt, was to interpret to his disciples the ancient cultural heritage. That is why, in his own words as recorded in the Analects, he was "a transmitter and not an originator." (Analects, VII, I.) But this is only one aspect of Confucius, and there is another one as well. This is that, while transmitting the traditional institutions and ideas, Confucius gave them interpretations derived from his own moral concepts. This is exemplified in his interpretation of the old custom that on the death of a parent, a son should mourn three years. Confucius commented on this: 'The child cannot leave the arms of its parents until it is three years old. This is why the three years' mourning is universally observed throughout the world."
(Analects, XVII, 2.1.) In other words, the son was utterly dependent upon his parents for at least the first three years of his life; hence upon their death he should mourn them for an equal length of time in order to express his gratitude. Likewise when teaching the Classics, Confucius gave them new interpretations. Thus in speaking of the Book of Poetry, he stressed its moral value by saying: In the Book of Poetry there are three hundred poems. But the essence of them can be covered in one sentence: Have no depraved thoughts.' " (A nalects, II, i.) In this way Confucius was more than a mere transmitter, for in transmitting, he originated something new.
This spirit of originating through transmitting was perpetuated by the followers of Confucius, by whom, as the classical texts were handed down from generation to generation, countless commentaries and interpretations were written. A great portion of what in later times came to be known as the Thirteen Classics developed as commentaries in this way on the original texts.
This is what set Confucius apart from the ordinary literati of his time, and made him the founder of a new school. Because the followers of this school were at the same time scholars and specialists on the Six Classics, the school became known as the School of the Literati.
The Rectification of Names
Besides the new interpretations which Confucius gave to the classics, he had his own ideas about the individual and society, heaven and man.
O<# CONFUCIUS, THE FIRST TEACHER
In regard to society, he held that in order to have a well—ordered one, the most important thing is to carry out what he called the rectification of names. That is, things in actual fact should be made to accord with the implication attached to them by names. Once
The Six Classics had existed before the time of Confucius, and they constituted the cultural legacy of the past. They had been the basis of education for the aristocrats during the early centuries of feudalism of the Chou dynasty. As feudalism began to disintegrate, however, roughly from the seventh century B.C. onward, the tutors of the aristocrats, or even some of the aristocrats themselves—men who had lost their positions and titles but were well versed in the Classics—began to scatter among the people.
They made their living, as we have seen in the last chapter, by teaching the Classics or by acting as skilled "assistants, well versed in the rituals, on the occasion of
064
CONKUC1US, THE FIRST TEACHER
funeral, sacrifice, wedding, and other ceremonies. This class of men was known as the ju or literati.
Confucius as an Educator
Confucius, however, was more than aju in the common sense of the word. It is true that in the Analects we find him, from one point of view, being portrayed merely as an educator. He wanted his disciples to be "rounded men who would be useful to state and society, and therefore he taught them various branches of knowledge based upon the different classics. His primary function as a teacher, he felt, was to interpret to his disciples the ancient cultural heritage. That is why, in his own words as recorded in the Analects, he was "a transmitter and not an originator." (Analects, VII, I.) But this is only one aspect of Confucius, and there is another one as well. This is that, while transmitting the traditional institutions and ideas, Confucius gave them interpretations derived from his own moral concepts. This is exemplified in his interpretation of the old custom that on the death of a parent, a son should mourn three years. Confucius commented on this: 'The child cannot leave the arms of its parents until it is three years old. This is why the three years' mourning is universally observed throughout the world."
(Analects, XVII, 2.1.) In other words, the son was utterly dependent upon his parents for at least the first three years of his life; hence upon their death he should mourn them for an equal length of time in order to express his gratitude. Likewise when teaching the Classics, Confucius gave them new interpretations. Thus in speaking of the Book of Poetry, he stressed its moral value by saying: In the Book of Poetry there are three hundred poems. But the essence of them can be covered in one sentence: Have no depraved thoughts.' " (A nalects, II, i.) In this way Confucius was more than a mere transmitter, for in transmitting, he originated something new.
This spirit of originating through transmitting was perpetuated by the followers of Confucius, by whom, as the classical texts were handed down from generation to generation, countless commentaries and interpretations were written. A great portion of what in later times came to be known as the Thirteen Classics developed as commentaries in this way on the original texts.
This is what set Confucius apart from the ordinary literati of his time, and made him the founder of a new school. Because the followers of this school were at the same time scholars and specialists on the Six Classics, the school became known as the School of the Literati.
The Rectification of Names
Besides the new interpretations which Confucius gave to the classics, he had his own ideas about the individual and society, heaven and man.
O<# CONFUCIUS, THE FIRST TEACHER
In regard to society, he held that in order to have a well—ordered one, the most important thing is to carry out what he called the rectification of names. That is, things in actual fact should be made to accord with the implication attached to them by names. Once