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Authors: Ross E. Dunn
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great cultural centers of the Middle East, notably Cairo and Damascus. In those cities were to be found the most illustrious teachers, the most varied curricula, the biggest colleges, the rarest libraries, and, for a young man with a career ahead of him, the most respected credentials.
Notes
1 . Quoted in George Makdisi,
The Rise of Colleges
(Edinburgh, 1981), p. 91.
2 . The limited literary sources on Tangier in the Almohad age and later have been brought together in Edouard Michaux-Bellaire,
Villes et tribus du Maroc: Tanger et sa zone
, vol. 7 (Paris, 1921).
3 . Derek Latham, “The Later ’Azafids,”
Revue de l’Occident Musulman et de la Méditerranée
15–16 (1973): 112–13.
4 . Charles-Emmanuel Dufourcq.
L’Espagne catalane et le Maghrib aux XIIIe et XIVe siècles
(Paris. 1966), p. 575. Dufourcq notes an upsurge of piracy emanating from Moroccan ports in the early fourteenth century.
5 . Hilmar C. Krueger. “Genoese Trade with Northwest Africa in the Twelfth Century.”
Speculum
8 (1933): 377–82. Krueger does not mention Tangier specifically, but there is no doubt that Europeans were sailing there about this time since they were also beginning to put in at Atlantic ports southwest of Tangier.
6 . J.H. Parry.
The Discovery of the Sea
(New York, 1974), p. 75.
7 . Charles-Emmanuel Dufourcq, “La Question de Ceuta au XIIIe siècle,”
Hespéris
42 (1955): 67–127: Derek Latham, “The Strategic Position and Defence of Ceuta in the Later Muslim Period,”
Islamic Quarterly
15 (1971): 189–204; Anna Mascarello, “Quelques aspects des activités italiennes dans le Maghreb médiéval,”
Revue d’Histoire et de Civilisation du Maghreb
5 (1968): 74–75.
8 . Dufourcq,
L’Espagne catalane
, p. 159.
9 . A
madrasa
was founded in Tangier some time during the reign of Abu I’Hasan (1331–51). Henri Terrasse,
Histoire du Maroc
, 2 vols. (Casablanca, 1949–50), vol. 2. p. 53.
10 . Ibn Khaldun,
The Muqaddimah
, 2nd edn., trans. F. Rosenthal, 3 vols. (Princeton, N.J., 1967), vol. 2, pp. 430–31.
11 . On the culture of men of traditional learning in nineteenth- and twentieth-century Morocco, see Dale F. Eickelman,
Knowledge and Power in Morocco: The Education of a Twentieth Century Notable
(Princeton, N.J., 1985).
12 . Kenneth Brown,
People of Salé: Tradition and Change in a Moroccan City, 1830–1930
(Cambridge, Mass., 1976), p. 103.
13 . Alfred Bel,
La Religion musulmane en Berbérie
(Paris, 1938), pp. 320–22, 327.
14 . On the dress of legal scholars in both Granada and Morocco see Rachel Arié,
L’Espagne musulmane au temps des Nasrides
(Paris, 1973), pp. 382–91.
15 . Bel,
La Religion musulmane
, pp. 352–53; Terrasse,
Histoire de Maroc
, vol. 1. p. 81.
16 . Mohamed Talbi speaks of Muslim emigration from Spain as a “fuite des cerveaux” in “Les contacts culturels entre l’Ifriqiya hafside (1230–1569) et le sultanat nasride d’Espagne (1232–1492)” in
Actas del II Coloquis hispano-tunecino de estudios historicos
(Madrid, 1973), pp. 63–90.
2 The Maghrib
A scholar’s education is greatly improved by traveling in quest of knowledge and meeting the authoritative teachers (of his time). 1
Ibn Khaldun
Tangier would have counted among its inhabitants many individuals who had traveled to the Middle East, most of them with the main purpose of carrying out the
hajj
, or pilgrimage to the Holy Places of Mecca and Medina in the Hijaz region of Western Arabia. Islam obliged every Muslim who was not impoverished, enslaved, insane, or endangered by war or epidemic to go to Mecca at least once in his lifetime and to perform there the set of collective ceremonies prescribed by the
shari’a
. Each year hundreds and often thousands of North Africans fulfilled their duty, joining in a great ritual migration that brought together believers from the far corners of the Afro–Eurasian world. A traveler bound for the Middle East might have any number of mundane or purely personal goals in mind —
Notes
1 . Quoted in George Makdisi,
The Rise of Colleges
(Edinburgh, 1981), p. 91.
2 . The limited literary sources on Tangier in the Almohad age and later have been brought together in Edouard Michaux-Bellaire,
Villes et tribus du Maroc: Tanger et sa zone
, vol. 7 (Paris, 1921).
3 . Derek Latham, “The Later ’Azafids,”
Revue de l’Occident Musulman et de la Méditerranée
15–16 (1973): 112–13.
4 . Charles-Emmanuel Dufourcq.
L’Espagne catalane et le Maghrib aux XIIIe et XIVe siècles
(Paris. 1966), p. 575. Dufourcq notes an upsurge of piracy emanating from Moroccan ports in the early fourteenth century.
5 . Hilmar C. Krueger. “Genoese Trade with Northwest Africa in the Twelfth Century.”
Speculum
8 (1933): 377–82. Krueger does not mention Tangier specifically, but there is no doubt that Europeans were sailing there about this time since they were also beginning to put in at Atlantic ports southwest of Tangier.
6 . J.H. Parry.
The Discovery of the Sea
(New York, 1974), p. 75.
7 . Charles-Emmanuel Dufourcq, “La Question de Ceuta au XIIIe siècle,”
Hespéris
42 (1955): 67–127: Derek Latham, “The Strategic Position and Defence of Ceuta in the Later Muslim Period,”
Islamic Quarterly
15 (1971): 189–204; Anna Mascarello, “Quelques aspects des activités italiennes dans le Maghreb médiéval,”
Revue d’Histoire et de Civilisation du Maghreb
5 (1968): 74–75.
8 . Dufourcq,
L’Espagne catalane
, p. 159.
9 . A
madrasa
was founded in Tangier some time during the reign of Abu I’Hasan (1331–51). Henri Terrasse,
Histoire du Maroc
, 2 vols. (Casablanca, 1949–50), vol. 2. p. 53.
10 . Ibn Khaldun,
The Muqaddimah
, 2nd edn., trans. F. Rosenthal, 3 vols. (Princeton, N.J., 1967), vol. 2, pp. 430–31.
11 . On the culture of men of traditional learning in nineteenth- and twentieth-century Morocco, see Dale F. Eickelman,
Knowledge and Power in Morocco: The Education of a Twentieth Century Notable
(Princeton, N.J., 1985).
12 . Kenneth Brown,
People of Salé: Tradition and Change in a Moroccan City, 1830–1930
(Cambridge, Mass., 1976), p. 103.
13 . Alfred Bel,
La Religion musulmane en Berbérie
(Paris, 1938), pp. 320–22, 327.
14 . On the dress of legal scholars in both Granada and Morocco see Rachel Arié,
L’Espagne musulmane au temps des Nasrides
(Paris, 1973), pp. 382–91.
15 . Bel,
La Religion musulmane
, pp. 352–53; Terrasse,
Histoire de Maroc
, vol. 1. p. 81.
16 . Mohamed Talbi speaks of Muslim emigration from Spain as a “fuite des cerveaux” in “Les contacts culturels entre l’Ifriqiya hafside (1230–1569) et le sultanat nasride d’Espagne (1232–1492)” in
Actas del II Coloquis hispano-tunecino de estudios historicos
(Madrid, 1973), pp. 63–90.
2 The Maghrib
A scholar’s education is greatly improved by traveling in quest of knowledge and meeting the authoritative teachers (of his time). 1
Ibn Khaldun
Tangier would have counted among its inhabitants many individuals who had traveled to the Middle East, most of them with the main purpose of carrying out the
hajj
, or pilgrimage to the Holy Places of Mecca and Medina in the Hijaz region of Western Arabia. Islam obliged every Muslim who was not impoverished, enslaved, insane, or endangered by war or epidemic to go to Mecca at least once in his lifetime and to perform there the set of collective ceremonies prescribed by the
shari’a
. Each year hundreds and often thousands of North Africans fulfilled their duty, joining in a great ritual migration that brought together believers from the far corners of the Afro–Eurasian world. A traveler bound for the Middle East might have any number of mundane or purely personal goals in mind —
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