Read Online America At War - Concise Histories Of U.S. Military Conflicts From Lexington To Afghanistan by Terence T. Finn - Free Book Online Page A
Authors: Terence T. Finn
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the British foreign secretary had proposed that each side appoint commissioners to draft an agreement to end the conflict. Almost immediately, President Madison accepted the offer. He knew the war had not gone particularly well and that most Americans would welcome an end to hostilities. For their part, the British were weary of war and of the taxes required to sustain it. In addition, they were irked by the continued success of American privateers not blockaded by the Royal Navy.
So commissioners were appointed and met in Ghent. Considerable time passed before serious negotiations occurred, but on Christmas Eve 1814 a treaty was signed. The government in London accepted it soon thereafter. The United States Senate ratified the treaty on February 16, 1815.
The treaty called for all conquered lands (there were some, but not many) to be returned. It directed that military action with and against Native Americans be stopped. And it said that the boundary between New Brunswick and Maine would be settled by subsequent agreement. Significantly, the Treaty of Ghent made no mention of impressment.
At a time when communication across the Atlantic Ocean took weeks not seconds, news that the war was over did not reach participants for some time, during which several engagements took place at sea and one major battle occurred on land. On February 10, 1815, the
Constitution
captured two Royal Navy frigates, thereby sealing her reputation as one of the world’s greatest fighting ships. A month before, Major General Sir Edward Pakenham, Wellington’s brother-in-law, made an ill-advised frontal assault against the defenders of New Orleans led by Andrew Jackson. The attack failed, and the British suffered twenty-four hundred casualties, among them Sir Edward who was killed. Undaunted, the British army then proceeded by sea to the coast of Alabama, where it captured the fort guarding Mobile. An attack on the city was called off when word of the treaty arrived.
The final battle of the war took place on June 30, 1815. In the faraway Sunda Strait (a body of water that connects the islands of Sumatra and Java) the American sloop
Peacock
captured the British East India Company’s armed brig
Nautilus
.
Peacock
’s captain was told the war had ended, but he did not believe it. He opened fire and killed seven men. After taking possession of the vessel, he was given proof of the treaty and returned the prize to the British. With that, the fighting came to an end.
Which side won the War of 1812?
The British think they did. They point out that their most important objective, which was to retain control of Canada, was achieved. American armies invading Canada were almost always defeated. The Royal Navy’s blockade, by and large, was successful. The American capital was occupied. The British were never forced to concede on the subject of impressment.
Americans also believe they won the war. They point to the great victories on Lake Erie and Lake Champlain. They celebrate the actions of the
Constitution
and the other American naval vessels. They remember the defense of Baltimore and Andrew Jackson’s victory at New Orleans. They note that in a war against the world’s most powerful nation, no American territory was given up. And they note also that after the war Britain no longer seized American seamen.
Each side’s position has merit. But the evidence suggests that the British have a stronger claim. Strategically, their primary aim in the war was met. Despite American efforts Canada remained a British possession. Moreover, that the Treaty of Ghent was silent on the subject of impressment indicates that the British kept the American grievance from being redressed. True, the United States won several battles on land and lake, yet the best way to determine who won the War of 1812 is to see whose war aims were achieved, and doing that, it appears the British won.
That does not mean the Americans received no benefits. Indeed, they received
So commissioners were appointed and met in Ghent. Considerable time passed before serious negotiations occurred, but on Christmas Eve 1814 a treaty was signed. The government in London accepted it soon thereafter. The United States Senate ratified the treaty on February 16, 1815.
The treaty called for all conquered lands (there were some, but not many) to be returned. It directed that military action with and against Native Americans be stopped. And it said that the boundary between New Brunswick and Maine would be settled by subsequent agreement. Significantly, the Treaty of Ghent made no mention of impressment.
At a time when communication across the Atlantic Ocean took weeks not seconds, news that the war was over did not reach participants for some time, during which several engagements took place at sea and one major battle occurred on land. On February 10, 1815, the
Constitution
captured two Royal Navy frigates, thereby sealing her reputation as one of the world’s greatest fighting ships. A month before, Major General Sir Edward Pakenham, Wellington’s brother-in-law, made an ill-advised frontal assault against the defenders of New Orleans led by Andrew Jackson. The attack failed, and the British suffered twenty-four hundred casualties, among them Sir Edward who was killed. Undaunted, the British army then proceeded by sea to the coast of Alabama, where it captured the fort guarding Mobile. An attack on the city was called off when word of the treaty arrived.
The final battle of the war took place on June 30, 1815. In the faraway Sunda Strait (a body of water that connects the islands of Sumatra and Java) the American sloop
Peacock
captured the British East India Company’s armed brig
Nautilus
.
Peacock
’s captain was told the war had ended, but he did not believe it. He opened fire and killed seven men. After taking possession of the vessel, he was given proof of the treaty and returned the prize to the British. With that, the fighting came to an end.
Which side won the War of 1812?
The British think they did. They point out that their most important objective, which was to retain control of Canada, was achieved. American armies invading Canada were almost always defeated. The Royal Navy’s blockade, by and large, was successful. The American capital was occupied. The British were never forced to concede on the subject of impressment.
Americans also believe they won the war. They point to the great victories on Lake Erie and Lake Champlain. They celebrate the actions of the
Constitution
and the other American naval vessels. They remember the defense of Baltimore and Andrew Jackson’s victory at New Orleans. They note that in a war against the world’s most powerful nation, no American territory was given up. And they note also that after the war Britain no longer seized American seamen.
Each side’s position has merit. But the evidence suggests that the British have a stronger claim. Strategically, their primary aim in the war was met. Despite American efforts Canada remained a British possession. Moreover, that the Treaty of Ghent was silent on the subject of impressment indicates that the British kept the American grievance from being redressed. True, the United States won several battles on land and lake, yet the best way to determine who won the War of 1812 is to see whose war aims were achieved, and doing that, it appears the British won.
That does not mean the Americans received no benefits. Indeed, they received
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