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Authors: Jinwung Kim
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fall of Old Chos ŏ n to Wiman in 194 BC , many refugees from the territory of Old Chos ŏ n, including its last king, Chun, swarmed into the Chin domain. Again, with the downfall of Wiman Chos ŏ n in 108 BC , a number of refugees also fled south, settling in Chin territory. The immigration of these refugees from the north enabled Chin to adopt a more advanced iron culture. As a result, Chin society rapidly experienced a profound transformation, which eventually resulted in the restructuring of the Chin territory into three new political entities, known collectively as the three Han federations—Mahan, situated in the southwestern part of the Korean peninsula; Chinhan, located east of the Naktong River; and Py ŏ nhan, positioned west of the Naktong River.
It is said that the Mahan federation was made up of 54 states and more than 100,000 households. Among the numerous states, the ruler of the Mokchi state, situated in today’s Chiksan, South Ch’ungch’ ŏ ng province, was elevated to the “Chin King” to assert nominal lordship over the three Han states. Later, however, the state of Paekche in the lower reaches of the Han River became increasingly powerful and competed for dominance over the Mahan federation with the state of Mokchi. The later Paekche kingdom developed out of the state and acquired predominance in the Mahan region. Paekche was founded by immigrant people from the north, and its founder-king is said to have been Onjo, a son of Chumong, the legendary founder-king of Kogury ŏ .
The Chinhan federation, consisting of 12 states, was established by the Wiman Chos ŏ n people who had migrated south into the Naktong River basin and today’s Ky ŏ ngju region. An outstanding example from this migration was Chos ŏ n-sang Y ŏ kkyegy ŏ ng, who fled south immediately before the fall of Wiman Chos ŏ n leading more than 2,000 households. These migrants from the north may have wanted to settle in the Mahan area but, upon meeting resistance from the existing inhabitants, they moved down to the present-day Ky ŏ ngsang region along the Naktong River. The later Silla kingdom emerged from the walled-town state of Saro, one of the 12 Chinhan states.
In the southeast coastal region of Kimhae and Masan, in present-day South Ky ŏ ngsang province, a federation of 12 maritime states known as Py ŏ nhan was established. The Py ŏ nhan people engaged in vigorous maritime activities and produced high-quality iron in large quantities. They exported iron wares to Japan and Nangnang through the “iron road.” Later, six Kaya kingdoms emerged from the Py ŏ nhan region.
From the late third century BC the influence of refugees from the north brought the state of Chin and the three Han federations solidly into the Iron Age. The introduction of iron technology enabled the widespread manufacture of iron artifacts for daily use. A variety of farming implements such as hoes, plowshares, sickles, and mattocks were fashioned from iron. With the extensive use of iron appliances, rice agriculture developed in the rich alluvial valleys and plains to the point where reservoirs for irrigation were established. The famous Py ŏ kkol-je (reservoir) at Kimje, North Ch ŏ lla province, and Ŭ irim-ji (reservoir) at Chech’ ŏ n, North Ch’ungch’ ŏ ng province, were built in the Mahan region.
Rulers of the three Han federations were called
sinji, h ŏ mch’ ŭ k, p ŏ nye, salhae, ky ŏ nji, p ŏ rye,
and
ŭ pch’a.
These indigenous titles are all interpreted as having meant “chief” or “head.” These political leaders had secular powers only, while religious ceremonies were performed exclusively by masters of ritual called
ch’ ŏ n’gun,
or heavenly lord. Functioning as shamans, they are said to have had authority over separate settlements known as
sodo
or
sottae.
It is recorded that a tall wooden pole was erected in the sodo on which were hung bells and a drum, believed to be the instruments for invoking spirits. The
It is said that the Mahan federation was made up of 54 states and more than 100,000 households. Among the numerous states, the ruler of the Mokchi state, situated in today’s Chiksan, South Ch’ungch’ ŏ ng province, was elevated to the “Chin King” to assert nominal lordship over the three Han states. Later, however, the state of Paekche in the lower reaches of the Han River became increasingly powerful and competed for dominance over the Mahan federation with the state of Mokchi. The later Paekche kingdom developed out of the state and acquired predominance in the Mahan region. Paekche was founded by immigrant people from the north, and its founder-king is said to have been Onjo, a son of Chumong, the legendary founder-king of Kogury ŏ .
The Chinhan federation, consisting of 12 states, was established by the Wiman Chos ŏ n people who had migrated south into the Naktong River basin and today’s Ky ŏ ngju region. An outstanding example from this migration was Chos ŏ n-sang Y ŏ kkyegy ŏ ng, who fled south immediately before the fall of Wiman Chos ŏ n leading more than 2,000 households. These migrants from the north may have wanted to settle in the Mahan area but, upon meeting resistance from the existing inhabitants, they moved down to the present-day Ky ŏ ngsang region along the Naktong River. The later Silla kingdom emerged from the walled-town state of Saro, one of the 12 Chinhan states.
In the southeast coastal region of Kimhae and Masan, in present-day South Ky ŏ ngsang province, a federation of 12 maritime states known as Py ŏ nhan was established. The Py ŏ nhan people engaged in vigorous maritime activities and produced high-quality iron in large quantities. They exported iron wares to Japan and Nangnang through the “iron road.” Later, six Kaya kingdoms emerged from the Py ŏ nhan region.
From the late third century BC the influence of refugees from the north brought the state of Chin and the three Han federations solidly into the Iron Age. The introduction of iron technology enabled the widespread manufacture of iron artifacts for daily use. A variety of farming implements such as hoes, plowshares, sickles, and mattocks were fashioned from iron. With the extensive use of iron appliances, rice agriculture developed in the rich alluvial valleys and plains to the point where reservoirs for irrigation were established. The famous Py ŏ kkol-je (reservoir) at Kimje, North Ch ŏ lla province, and Ŭ irim-ji (reservoir) at Chech’ ŏ n, North Ch’ungch’ ŏ ng province, were built in the Mahan region.
Rulers of the three Han federations were called
sinji, h ŏ mch’ ŭ k, p ŏ nye, salhae, ky ŏ nji, p ŏ rye,
and
ŭ pch’a.
These indigenous titles are all interpreted as having meant “chief” or “head.” These political leaders had secular powers only, while religious ceremonies were performed exclusively by masters of ritual called
ch’ ŏ n’gun,
or heavenly lord. Functioning as shamans, they are said to have had authority over separate settlements known as
sodo
or
sottae.
It is recorded that a tall wooden pole was erected in the sodo on which were hung bells and a drum, believed to be the instruments for invoking spirits. The
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